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作者简介:

曹姣(1987—),女,湖南岳阳人,讲师,博士,研究方向为运动与慢性疾病的防治及机理。

中图分类号:G804.7

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1008-3596(2018)04-0071-07

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目录contents

    摘要

    AMP活化蛋白激酶(AMPK)是细胞内能量感应器,运动可引起肝脏中AMPK活性增加,与细胞内miRNAs、固醇调节元件结合蛋白(SREBPs)、过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体(PPARs)、核因子κB(NF-κB)等多种细胞因子相互作用,参与细胞内多种生物学功能,包括脂质代谢、炎症过程、线粒体的生物合成、胰岛素抵抗等,改善肥胖、非酒精性脂肪肝和2型糖尿病等代谢性疾病。运动激活肝脏中AMPK信号通路,参与胰岛素抵抗状态下肝脏脂代谢异常的机理调节。

    Abstract

    AMPK is a cellular energy sensor, and exercise could increase AMPK activity in the liver, which interacts with the intracellular miRNAs, sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBPs), peroxisomal proliferator activating receptor (PPARs), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappa B), and participates in a variety of biological function in the cell, including the biosynthesis of mitochondria, ectopic lipid deposition, angiogenesis, inflammation, insulin resistance and so on. And finally it helps improve metabolic diseases such as obesity, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and type 2 diabetes. Exercise helps activate AMPK pathway in liver, and then it participates in the mechanism regulation of abnormal lipid metabolism in liver under insulin resistance.

    关键词

    运动胰岛素抵抗肝脏AMPKSREBPsNF-κB

    Keywords

    exerciseinsulin resistanceliverAMPKSREBPsNF-κB

  • 胰岛素抵抗(IR)与多种因年龄增加所引发的慢性疾病有关,肝脏在系统性IR中起着非常重要的作用[1]。维持肝脏的正常生理功能是预防IR相关疾病如肥胖、非酒精性脂肪肝病(NAFLD)等的重要手段[2]。随着慢性疾病的发病率逐年升高且呈年轻化趋势,改善IR肝脏代谢功能成为当前运动医学研究的热点。AMP活化蛋白激酶(AMPK)是细胞内能量感应器,可通过与细胞内miRNAs[3-4]、固醇调节元件结合蛋白(SREBPs)[5]、过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体(PPARs)[6]、核因子κB(NF-κB)[7]等相互作用,参与调节细胞内脂质代谢、炎症调节、IR等生理过程,与肥胖、NAFLD、2型糖尿病(T2DM)等代谢性疾病相关。本文以AMPK信号为切入点,阐述运动防治IR肝脏脂代谢功能异常发生发展的可能机制,为今后T2DM乃至代谢综合征等相关慢性疾病的防治提供参考。

  • 1 胰岛素抵抗与肝脏脂代谢

  • 脂代谢紊乱是NAFLD、T2DM等慢性疾病的重要特征。有研究发现,在T2DM外周血糖升高之前,机体便已经出现了脂质代谢异常现象[8]。肥胖、NAFLD、T2DM等慢性疾病均存在外周IR,引起脂质的异位沉积,如沉积在肝脏和骨骼肌中。IR可导致外周摄取和利用葡萄糖的能力下降,过多的葡萄糖通过血液循环到达肝脏以甘油三酯(TG)形式沉积,而肝脏自身为了减少TG的毒害作用,通过向血液中释放更多的TG,使外周血中TG水平进一步升高。另外,在IR情况下,脂肪组织的脂质合成作用减弱而脂解作用加强,通过释放自由脂肪酸(FFA)入血导致血浆该指标浓度升高,过多的FFA随血液循环可达到肝脏合成TG,如此形成恶性循环[1]。外周循环血脂升高、肝脏中的过度脂质沉积导致氧化应激加强和IR进一步增加,不仅影响各代谢性疾病肝脏的正常功能,而且将导致病情的进一步恶化。

  • 2 AMPK信号与胰岛素抵抗肝脏脂代谢

  • 2.1 AMPK及其靶点的分子生物学特征

  • AMPK是一种由α-催化亚基、β-调节亚基和γ-调节亚基组成异源三聚体复合物,为一种存在于原始单细胞生物和哺乳动物细胞中的能量敏感酶。人类和啮齿动物分别由不同的基因表达两种亚型的α-亚基和β-亚基(α1、α2;β1、β2)、三种亚型的γ-亚基(γ1、γ2、γ3)。α-亚基N-末端包含一个保守的Ser/Thr激酶区和苏氨酸(Thr-172)位点,该位点的磷酸化是其激酶活性所必需的。AMP依赖的LKB1及Ca2+依赖的CaMKKβ是其主要的上游磷酸化酶。当ATP产生减少(如葡萄糖缺乏或缺氧)或能量消耗增加(如肌肉收缩),细胞内AMP/ATP的浓度将会增加,通过上游磷酸化酶作用,激活AMPK,进一步促进脂肪酸氧化和葡萄糖转运,增加ATP生成[9]。活化的AMPK可通过作用于下游因子,参与多种细胞生物学功能的改变,中和代谢综合征动物模型中观察到的诸多细胞异常,包括胰岛素抵抗、炎症和异位脂质沉积等。羧化酶1/2(ACC1/2)、HMG-CoA还原酶是AMPK典型的直接靶点。AMPK参与调节脂质代谢还通过一些相关转录因子,如PPARα、SREBP1c和碳水化合物反应元件结合蛋白(ChREBP),通过维持肝脂质输出利用和吸收合成之间的平衡,在肝脂质代谢中起重要作用[10]。AMPK和沉默信息调节因子2相关酶1(SIRT1)通路在炎症介质失活、炎症细胞募集和免疫细胞功能中起着关键作用。研究发现,肝细胞中AMPK的磷酸化能提高葡萄糖的利用率和脂肪酸利用。肿瘤坏死因子α(TNF-α)治疗抑制了AMPK和SIRT1的磷酸化。此外,脂联素可以增加HUVECs细胞中AMPK磷酸化水平,抑制TNF-α刺激的NF-κB活性[7]

  • 2.2 AMPK信号在胰岛素抵抗肝脏脂代谢中的作用

  • 研究显示,脂肪肝的代谢异常可能是由于AMPK磷酸化失调,AMPK可能是治疗肝脏疾病的一个有效靶点。AMPK激活可使细胞从合成代谢转变为分解代谢状态,启动ATP产生途径,增加脂肪酸氧化,并抑制肝脂肪生成[10]。高脂饮食构建NAFLD模型,结果显示,NAFLD模型大鼠肝脏脂代谢紊乱,与此同时SIRT1/AMPK信号通路调节SREBP1c、CPT、脂肪酸合成酶(FAS)、固醇辅酶A去饱和酶(SCD)、叉头蛋白O1(FoxO1)的表达参与其中[11]。Jiménez-Flores L M,et al研究发现,15周龄糖尿病db/db小鼠肝脏中AMPK、PPARγ表达减少,NF-κB蛋白增加,且出现肝脏代谢紊乱和外周IR[12]。Velickovi ć N,et al研究结果显示,9周高糖饮食喂养雄性Wistar大鼠肝脏内NF-κB、氨基末端激酶(JNK)通路激活,脂质沉积、IL-1β、TNF-α增加,α-AMPK/AMPK降低,SIRT1表达增加,胰岛素敏感性降低[13]。Wang C等选取IR的HepG2细胞为研究对象,探讨IR肝细胞脂质积累的机制,结果显示,HepG2细胞中的IR增加、脂质积累、AMPK表达和活性降低、SREBP1c Ser372含量增加,表明AMPK/SREBP1c参与调节[10]

  • 3 运动对胰岛素抵抗肝脏脂代谢的影响与AMPK信号的关系

  • 3.1 运动对胰岛素抵抗肝脏脂代谢的影响

  • 长期运动能降低16周高脂饮食引起的肥胖小鼠的IR,降低肝脏CLK2含量和肝脏脂肪沉积[14]。高强度跑台运动(2*24min,50%— 90%VO2max)能增加间歇性低氧诱导的IR大鼠全身胰岛素敏感性和肝脏中AKT磷酸化[15]。24周中等强度运动降低了高脂饮食介导的小鼠体重增加,降低系统IR和葡萄糖耐受,减轻肝脂肪变性和纤维化,降低p62蛋白表达[16]。Tsuzuki T,et al研究显示,10周运动训练使25周龄肥胖大鼠腓肠肌和肝脏的热休克蛋白72(HSP72)水平升高,葡萄糖耐量提高,此外,TG和FFA水平显著下降[8]。4周运动训练能降低高脂饲料喂养小鼠肝脏中二酰基甘油和TC的积累,降低肝脏中脂肪酸转运子白细胞分化抗原36(CD36)和脂肪酸转运蛋白4(FATP4)水平,减少脂肪酸进入肝细胞内[17]

  • 3.2 AMPK在运动改善胰岛素抵抗肝脏脂代谢中的作用

  • 有氧运动可以改善T2DM小鼠模型血脂代谢、氧化应激标志物、IR和血浆葡萄糖浓度,通过toll样受体4(TLR4)-细胞外信号调节激酶(ERK)/AMPK介导的信号通路,影响T2DM的进展[18]。8周耐力运动能增加T2DM肝脏AMPK1/2蛋白含量、AMPKα1和AMPKα2和羧化酶(ACC)磷酸化水平,增加肝脏瘦素受体和糖原,显著降低TG和FFA水平[19]。身体活动和运动训练改善了肥胖或T2DM肝脏IR。相比之下,身体活动导致了AMPK、蛋白激酶B(AKT)和糖原合成激酶3β(GSK3β)磷酸化增加。此外,自发性的跑台运动减少了高脂饮食大鼠肝脏TG水平,增加了羧化酶磷酸化和葡萄糖的摄取。标准饮食喂养的8周龄C57BL/6J小鼠,经8周跑台训练后,增加了小鼠肝脏中胰岛素刺激的AKT和GSK3β磷酸化,减少细胞因子信号转导抑制分子3(SOCS3)表达,而对AMPK激活无显著影响[20]。8周运动训练显著降低了高脂饮食组大鼠体重、血浆瘦素、肝脏、骨骼肌和下丘脑中的瘦素受体和SOCS3mRNA[21]。持续3小时跑台运动(60%—70%VO2max)能增加Swiss小鼠肝脏和骨骼肌AMPK-ACC活性,减少血糖和胰岛素血症,增加胰岛素耐量。与此同时,运动增加了肝脏和骨骼肌胰岛素清除酶和降解酶的水平[2]。运动4周后肝脏巨噬细胞迁移抑制因子(MIF)表达增加。而MIF处理肝细胞研究发现,AMPK和ACC磷酸化作用增强,伴随细胞内脂质氧化增加,抑制AMPK降低MIF诱导的脂质氧化。结果表明,运动时肝脏中MIF高度表达,可能通过激活AMPK通路预防肝脂肪变性[22]。此外Yi X J,et al研究急性运动对糖尿病大鼠的影响,结果显示急性运动后8—16小时,糖尿病大鼠肝脏中瘦素水平显著降低,瘦素受体水平显著提高,且AMPKα1/2表达、AMPKα1、AMPKα2和ACC磷酸化水平显著提高,但对肝脏脂质和糖原沉积无显著影响[19]

  • 3.3 AMPK信号参与运动改善胰岛素抵抗肝脏脂代谢的分子机制

  • 3.3.1 AMPK/SREBPs/PPARa机制

  • SREBPs是一组螺旋—环螺旋亮氨酸拉链转录因子家族,是膜结合转录因子,控制胆固醇和脂肪酸代谢相关酶基因的表达,在脂肪生成、胰岛素敏感性和脂肪酸稳态中发挥着非常重要的作用。SREBPs家族共包括有SREBP1(SREBP1α和SERBP1c)和SREBP2。SREBP1在代谢活性较强的器官中高表达,例如肝脏、脂肪组织和骨骼肌,具有调节脂质代谢、脂肪生成及胰岛素效应作用[6]。SREBP1c在瘦素缺乏引起的高胰岛素抵抗和肥胖(ob/ob)IR大鼠脂肪肝中表达升高。通过激活AMPK可抑制肝脏中的SREBP1c,降低肝脏TG水平,减轻脂肪变性[5]。激活AMPK也可作用于SREBP2,调节肝脏中的TC和血浆中的极低密度脂蛋白胆固醇(VLDL-C)的水平。

  • 运动可不同程度地作用于肝脏SREBPs参与脂代谢调节。Ngo Sock E T,et al研究8周跑台运动对去卵巢大鼠脂代谢的影响,结果显示,运动训练显著降低大鼠脂肪和血浆TG,增加肝脏SREBP2mRNA水平,而对其他的基因如LDL-R、低密度脂蛋白受体相关蛋白基因1(LRP-1)和枯草溶菌素转化酶9(PCSK9)等无显著影响[23]。Côté I,et al研究运动训练对7周饮食介导的动脉粥样硬化大鼠的影响,结果显示,与安静组比较,运动组大鼠肝脏TG和TC含量显著减少,而SREBP1c mRNA减少,MTP mRNA增加[24]。7周高脂饮食介导IR大鼠经连续10周高强度运动训练或中等强度持续训练,结果显示,高强度间歇训练更有效地预防肝脏脂质积累,可能通过调节参与肝脂肪生成(SREBP1、ACC1、FAS)和β-氧化(CPT1a、PPARα)基因的mRNA水平[6]。Martínez R,et al研究显示,饮食和有氧训练综合干预提高了NAFLD Zucker大鼠的有氧能力,降低其血浆葡萄糖和脂质代谢的生化参数,以及肝脂肪酸分子和核转录因子SREBP1c、PPARα、肝X受体(LXR)的基因表达,降低脂肪生成酶活性,增加脂肪分解酶活性[25]。运动导致增加高脂饮食C57BL/6小鼠肝脏pAMPKα (Thr172)、pACC和SIRT1蛋白,降低SREBP1c、脂质1(lipid 1)和FAS mRNA水平;运动训练还通过促进PPARα和其靶基因CPT1α的表达,增加脂肪酸氧化,降低肝脏TG含量[5]。高强度间歇训练(游泳)导致高脂饮食介导的C57BL/6小鼠体重、血糖、葡萄糖耐受性和肝脂质显著下降,减少炎症标志物,增加肝脏中β-氧化和PPARα水平,降低肝脏脂肪生成和PPARγ水平[26]。游泳训练能有效提高高脂组大鼠胰岛素敏感性,通过影响肝脏和骨骼肌脂质代谢(如FABP)、能量代谢(如CPT1和PPAR)和胰岛素信号转导相关蛋白的表达来预防IR[27]

  • 3.3.2 AMPK/NF-κB/TNF-a机制

  • 慢性系统性炎症反应能导致脂质的异位沉积,引起内质网应激、氧化应激和细胞凋亡导致器官损伤。研究表明,肝脏脂肪变性与慢性炎症之间存在紧密联系,关键的调节因子可能是NF-κB[28]。各种内源性因素的刺激,如ROS、TNF-α、白细胞介素-1(IL-1)等,IκB激酶(IKK)激活磷酸化IκB,进一步发生泛素化依赖和蛋白酶体依赖的降解,激活的NF-κB又可促使单核巨噬细胞和淋巴细胞分泌TNF-α、IL-1,由此形成级联反应。

  • 5 周游泳运动能显著降低高脂高糖饮食喂养的大鼠肝脏脂质沉积和IR,减少肝脏IL-6、TNF-α和血浆ALT、AST水平[29]。Zhang G,et al选取c57BL/BJ小鼠为研究对象,观察13周游泳训练对高胰岛素依赖型肥胖及相关的IR和炎症的影响,结果显示,游泳训练可显著降低炎症介质TNF-α、IL-6、单核细胞趋化蛋白1(MCP-1)的含量,降低IR[30]。16名男性糖尿病患者进行16周(每周3次)有氧运动和抵抗运动的综合训练,结果显示,受试者血浆瘦素、视黄醇结合蛋白4(RBP4)、IL-6、TNF-α和MCP-1均显著性降低,而胰岛素样生长因子1(IGF-1)水平显著增加,发挥抗炎效应[31]。长期运动训练降低了高脂饮食饲养的NASH大鼠肝脏IL-1β增加、IL-6和转化生长因子β(TGF-β);运动也降低高脂饮食喂养大鼠肝脏IRS-1Ser307/总IRS-1的比例,总ERK、总JNK、活化JNK的表达、活化AKT/总AKT比率[32]。Botezelli J D,et al研究8周三种不同的运动形式(有氧训练、力量训练和有氧+力量训练)对高糖饮食介导的代谢综合征大鼠的影响,结果显示,力量训练对高糖介导的IR大鼠葡萄糖稳态、胰岛素敏感性、肝脂含量的影响均优于其他两种运动形式。这三种运动形式都通过肝脏和肌肉JNK磷酸化和NF-κB激活,降低炎症、TG含量和炎症通路[28]

  • 3.3.3 miRNA/AMPK

  • MicroRNAs(miRNAs)是代谢性疾病潜在的治疗靶点。最近的研究表明,miRNAs参与肝脂肪变性的发病机制,包括miR-21、27、33、34a、122、143、370、212、378b、1224-5p等[3-4]。miR-1224-5p抑制剂显著降低了高脂饮食喂养小鼠肝脏脂肪生成和脂肪变性,而miR-1224-5p模拟物促进了C57BL/6小鼠肝脏脂质积累。研究同时发现,AMPKα1是miR-1224-5p的直接靶点。miR-1224-5p可连接到AMPKα3 '非翻译区,抑制AMPKα1蛋白的表达及其下游分子。此外AMPK也能抑制肝脏miR-1224-5p的表达[3]。瘦素受体缺陷的db/db小鼠肝脏脂质沉积增加,其机制可能是通过AMPK磷酸化下调SREBP1c,进一步抑制FAS和SCD1活性,其中miR-34a和miR-33参与这一调节[4]。急性和慢性运动均能降低饮食介导的肥胖SD大鼠系统IR,减少肝脏脂质沉积、NFE2、miR-423-5p表达和血浆FFA水平;增加胰腺衍生因子抗体(FAM3A)mRNA和蛋白表达、ATP水平和Akt磷酸化。提示运动通过介导肝脏NFE2/miR-423-5p和FAM3A-ATP-Akt改善肥胖SD大鼠肝脏和系统IR[32]。5周耐力锻炼降低了老年人肝脏脂肪含量和血清成纤维细胞生长因子21(FGF21)的水平,提示运动诱导老年人肝脏脂肪减少且介导了血清FGF21水平降低[33]。16周有氧运动可减轻高脂饮食小鼠肝脂肪变性, miR-212mRNA和蛋白过度表达,FGF-21蛋白表达减少,提示运动预防NAFLD的作用通过下调miR-212作用于FGF-21[34]。4周低氧运动可通过降低miR-378b的表达,提高高脂饮食诱导肥胖大鼠的耐受性,通过降低CPT1A蛋白表达,增加FAS/CPT1A的表达从而降低肥胖大鼠肝脏的脂肪酸线粒体氧化[35]。Ohde D,et al研究耐力运动对肥胖表型大鼠IR相关因子的影响,结果显示,运动可能通过增加肝脏总AKT和pAKT含量,增加pAMPK,其中miRNA-21、27、33、122、143参与其中[36]

  • 3.3.4 SREBP1/RBP4/PGC-1

  • RBP4升高与IR、NAFLD、糖尿病发生有关。RBP4是21kDa的全反式视黄醇转运体,在血浆中循环。RBP4主要在肝脏中合成,但也由脂肪组织产生,并与更大的蛋白质结合增加其分子质量,以避免被肾小球滤过。研究显示,RBP4能促进SREBP1水平和转位,继而增加生脂基因(包括FAS、ACC1和DGAT-2)的表达,增加PGC-1mRNA和蛋白水平[37]。Cui J,et al研究8周(5次/周,60min/次)三种不同强度的运动——分别为低强度运动组(15—18m/min)、中等强度运动组(21—25m/min)、高强度运动组(28—32m/min)——对肥胖大鼠的影响。研究显示,较中等强度运动组,低强度运动组、高强度运动组大鼠有更高的IR、更低的胰岛素水平和内脏脂肪组织RBP4mRNA;较低强度运动组,中等强度组和高强度运动组大鼠肝脏RBP4mRNA表达更低[38]。5周跑台运动(15—20m/min,20min/d)可显著改善T2DM大鼠的IR,降低血清RBP4浓度和内脏脂肪组织及骨骼肌中RBP4水平,而对肝脏RBP4无显著影响[37]。运动对IR肝脏RBP4变化影响不同的原因可能与动物模型的选择以及运动训练强度的安排有关。

  • 综上所述,运动对IR肝脏脂代谢的作用机制,是由众多的细胞因子参与调节,而这些因子分布在多个层次上,相互影响,完成共同的代谢功能。在调节脂代谢异常过程中,AMPK信号起重要作用。运动可引起肝脏中AMPK信号的激活,参与调节IR下肝脏脂代谢性疾病问题。运动引起AMPK通路的变化为以上作用效应提供了可能机制。

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  • 参考文献

    • [1] Perry R J,Shulman G I.Treating fatty liver and insulin resistance[J].Aging(Albany NY),2013,5(11):791.

    • [2] Kurauti M A,Freitas-Dias R,Ferreira S M,et al.Acute exercise improves insulin clearance and increases the expression of insulin-degrading enzyme in the liver and skeletal muscle of Swiss mice[J].PLoS One,2016,11(7):e0160239.

    • [3] Chen T,Yan D,Cheng X,et al.MiR-1224-5p enhances hepatic lipogenesis by targeting adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase α1 in male mice[J].Endocrinology,2018,159(5):2008.

    • [4] Pang D,You L,Zhou L,et al.Averrhoa carambola free phenolic extract ameliorates nonalcoholic hepatic steatosis by modulating mircoRNA-34a,mircoRNA-33 and AMPK pathways in leptin receptor-deficient db/db mice[J].Food Funct,2017,8(12):4496.

    • [5] Cho J,Lee I,Kim D,et al.Effect of aerobic exercise training on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease induced by a high fat diet in C57BL/6 mice[J].J Exerc Nutrition Biochem,2014,18(4):339.

    • [6] Wang N,Liu Y,Ma Y,et al.High-intensity interval versus moderate-intensity continuous training:Superior metabolic benefits in diet-induced obesity mice[J].Life Sci,2017(191):122-131.

    • [7] Chen Y,Zheng Y,Liu L,et al.Adiponectin inhibits TNF-α-activated PAI-1 expression via the cAMP-PKA-AMPK-NF-κB axis in human umbilical vein endothelial Cells[J].Cell Physiol Biochem,2017,42(6):2342.

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    • [10] Wang C,Li Y,Hao M,et al.Astragaloside IV Inhibits Triglyceride Accumulation in Insulin-Resistant HepG2 Cells via AMPK-Induced SREBP-1c Phosphorylation[J].Front Pharmacol,2018,16(9):345.

    • [11] Yao H,Tao X,Xu L,et al.Dioscin alleviates non-alcoholic fatty liver disease through adjusting lipid metabolism via SIRT1/AMPK signaling pathway[J].Pharmacol Res,2018(131):51.

    • [12] Jiménez-Flores L M,López-Briones S,Macías-Cervantes M H,et al.A PPARγ,NF-κB and AMPK-dependent mechanism may be involved in the beneficial effects of curcumin in the diabetic db/db mice liver[J].Molecules,2014,19(6):8 289.

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    • [15] Pauly M,Assense A,Rondon A,et al.High intensity aerobic exercise training improves chronic intermittent hypoxia-induced insulin resistance without basal autophagy modulation[J].Sci Rep,2017,3(7):43663.

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